Capital social y apoyo monetario en la migración irregular Brasil-Estados Unidos
Resumen
El municipio de Governador Valadares y región constituyen epicentro de la dinámica migratoria de brasileños hacia los Estados Unidos. En razón del carácter irregular de esa migración, la literatura ha señalado la relevancia del capital social y del apoyo monetario para la concreción y continuidad del proyecto migratorio internacional de los brasileños. El objetivo de este artículo consiste en verificar la asociación entre las métricas representativas de capital social incorporado a la red personal de los migrantes internacionales brasileños que regresaron de los EE.UU. y residían en Governador Valadares en el año 2006 y el apoyo monetario recibido por ellos para cubrir los elevados costes de la migración irregular. La aplicación del conjunto de herramientas del Análisis de Redes Sociales (ARS) y del modelo de regresión logística para medir la naturaleza de esa asociación revela que el apoyo monetario, en la red migratoria Governador Valadares- EE.UU., no resulta de compromiso colectivo de los integrantes de la red personal del retornado, sino de la contribución de una o dos personas pertenecientes a su círculo íntimo de relaciones principal.
Palabras clave
Migración internacional, Retornados internacionales, Redes personales, Capital social, BrasilCitas
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19(6), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-1694-0_16
Assis, G. (1995). Estar aqui, estar lá...: uma cartografia de vida entre dois lugares (Dissertação de Mestrado). Florianópolis, Brasil: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.
Assis, G. (2004). De Criciúma para o mundo: rearranjos familiares e de gênero nas vivências dos novos migrantes brasileiros. (Tese de Doutorado). Campinas, Brasil: Universidade Estadual de Campinas. https://doi.org/10.47749/t/unicamp.2004.325759
Ayres, M., Ayres Junior, M.; Ayres, D. L., Santos, A. S. (2005). BioEstat 4.0: Statistical applications in the areas of biological and medical sciences. Belém: Society Civil Mamirauá; Brasília: CNPq.
Azenha, L. C (2008). Na travessia, ilegais morrem de frio e de sede. Vi o Mundo – o que você nunca pôde ver na TV. Disponível em: http://www.viomundo.com.br/arquivo/ataque-aos-imigrantes/na-travessia-ilegais-morremde-frio-e-de-sede/.
Barabási, Albert-László. (2002). Linked: The New Science of Networks. Perseus, Cambridge, MA. https://doi.org/10.2307/20033300
Bicalho, J. V. (1989). Yes, eu sou brazuca. Governador Valadares: Ibituruna, 1989.
Bienenstock, E. J., Bonacich, P. (2022). Eigenvector centralization as a measure of structural bias in information aggregation. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 46(3), 227-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250x.2021.1878357
Borgatti, S. P.; Jones, C.; Everett, M. G. (1998). Network measures of social capital. Connections, 21(2), 27-36. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313513572_Network_measures_of_social_capital.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In: Richardson, J., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood: 241–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/2069964
Boyd, M. (1989). Family and personal networks in international migration: recent developments and new agendas. International Migration Review, 23(3), 638–670. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838902300313
Bozdogan, H. (1987). Model selection and Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC): The general theoryand its analytical extensions. Psychometrika, v.52, n.3, p.345–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02294361
Brum, A. F. (1995). Desenvolvimento econômico brasileiro. Petrópolis: Vozes.
Burnham, K. P., Anderson, D. R. (2004). Multimodel inference: understanding AIC and BIC in model selection. Sociological Methods and Research, 33(2), 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644
Burt, R. (1992). Structural Holes. University of Chicago Press Chicago. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674029095-002
Burt, R. (2000). The Network Structure of Social Capital. In: Robert Sutton e Barry Staw (eds.) Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, JAI Press, Greenwich. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-3085(00)22009-1
Castles, S. (2000). International migration at the beginning of the twenty-first century: global trends and issues. International Social Science Journal, 52, 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2451.00258
Choldin, H. (1973). Kinship networks in migration process. International Migration Review, 7(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791837300700203
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38: 300-314.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95-S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943
Comissão Parlamentar Mista de Inquérito - CPMI (2006). Relatório Final CPMI da Emigração, Congresso Nacional, Brasília.
Degenne, A.; Forsé, M. (1999). Introducing Social Networks. London: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209373
Fazito, D., Soares, W. (2010). Capital social, análise de redes e os mecanismos intermediários do sistema migratório Brasil/EUA. Geografias, 10, 27-41. https://doi.org/10.35699/2237-549X..13280
Fazito, D., Soares, W. (2013). The Industry of Illegal Migration: Social Network Analysis of the Brazil-US Migration System. International Migration 52, 183-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12034
Field, J. (2003). Social capital. Routledge, London.
Fusco, W. (2001). Redes familiares na emigração valadarense para os Estados Unidos. Travessia - Revista do Migrante, 40, 11-16. https://doi.org/10.48213/travessia.i40.815
Fusco, W. (2005). Capital cordial: a reciprocidade entre os imigrantes brasileiros nos Estados Unidos. (Tese de Doutorado). Campinas, Brasil: Universidade Estadual de Campinas. https://doi.org/10.47749/t/unicamp.2005.335420
Fusco, W. (2009). Capital social e os fluxos migratórios internacionais de brasileiros. Travessia - Revista do Migrante, 65, 47-57. https://doi.org/10.48213/travessia.i65.557
Global Commission on International Migration - GCIM (2005). Migration in an interconnected world: new directions for action. Report of the Global Commission on International Migration. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t893gd.49
González, A. J. A., Fazito, D. (2018). Dinámica de cambio en las redes sociales y la formación de vínculos transnacionales: un caso de venezolanos profesionales viviendo en París. Redes. Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 29(1), 44-64. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/redes.747
Goulart, R., Sales, T. (1996). América, país de imigrantes e as crescentes restrições aos imigrantes nos Estados Unidos. Travessia - Revista do Migrante, 25, 10-14. https://doi.org/10.48213/travessia.i25.567
Granovetter, M. (1973). The Strengh of Weak Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-442450-0.50025-0
Hair Jr, J. F.; Black, W. C.; Babin B. J.; Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis. 7th Edition, Pearson, New York.
Hanneman, R., Riddle, M. (2005). Introduction to social network methods. Riverside. California: University of California. Retrieved from: http://faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/nettext/.
Hosmer Junior, D. W.; Lemeshow, S.; Sturdivant, R. X. (2013). Applied logistic regression. John Wiley & Sons, New York. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118548387.ch2
House, J. S., Kahn, R. L. (1985). Measures and Concepts of Social Support. In: Cohen, S., Syme, S.L. (Eds.). Social Support and Health. Academic Press, New York. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019818501200110
International Organization for Migration – IOM (2010). The future of migration: building capacities for change world migration report. https://doi.org/10.18356/4c12813b-en
Jay, M. (2019). Generalhoslem: goodness of fit tests for logistic regression models. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/generalhoslem/index.htm
Kadushin, C. (2012). Understanding Social Networks: theories, concepts, and findings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.49-6586
Krogstad, J.M., Passel, J.S., Cohn, D. (2017). 5 facts about illegal immigration in the U.S. Retrieved from: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/.
Lazega, E., Higgins, S.S. (2014). Redes Sociais e Estruturas Relacionais. Belo Horizonte, FinoTraço.
Lin, N. (2004). Social capital: a theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511815447.003
Lin, N. (2001). “Building a Network Theory of Social Capital”, in: Lin, N. et al. (eds.). Social Capital: theory and research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter Editors. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315129457-1
Lopes, R., Colletta, R. D., Ladeira, P. (2021). PF aponta ligação entre migração irregular para os EUA e máfia mexicana. Folha de São Paulo [online]. Disponível em: https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/mundo/2021/12/pf-aponta-ligacao-entre-migracao-ilegal-para-os-eua-com-mafia-mexicana.shtml.
Lozares, C., Roldán, P. L., Verd, J. M., Martí, J., Molina, J. L. (2011). Cohesión, Vinculación e Integración sociales en el marco del Capital Social. REDES- Revista hispana para el análisis de redes sociales, 20(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/redes.407
MacDonald, J. S., MacDonald, L. D. (1964). Chain migration, ethnic neighbourhood formation and social networks, The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 42(1), 82–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/3348581
Margolis, M. (1993). Little Brazil. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1h9dgnz.14
Margolis, M. (2003). Na virada do milênio: a emigração brasileira para os Estados Unidos. In: Fronteiras cruzadas: etnicidade, gênero e redes sociais, org. Ana Cristina Braga Martes e Soraya Fleischer. São Paulo, Paz e Terra.
Martes, A. C. B. (1999). Brasileiros nos Estados Unidos: um estudo sobre os imigrantes em Massachusetts. São Paulo, Paz e Terra. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0034-75902001000100010
Massey, D. S., Arango, J, Hugo, G., Kouaouchi, A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J. E. (1988). Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Clarendon, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.2307/3594080
McCarty, C. (2002). Structure in personal networks. Journal of SocialStructure (JoSS), 3(1). Retrieved from: https://www.cmu.edu/joss/content/articles/volume3/McCarty.html.
McCarty, C., Bernard, R., Killword, P., Shelley, G., Johnsen, E. (1997). Eliciting representative simples of personal networks. Social Networks, 19, 303-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8733(96)00302-4
Ministério das Relações Exteriores – MRE (2008). Brasileiros no mundo. Brasília: Departamento Consular e de Brasileiros no Exterior. Disponível em: http://www.abe.mre.gov.br/mundo/america-do-sul/republica-federativado-brasil/subsecretaria-geral-das-comunidades-brasileiras-no-exterior/avisos/newsitem_view2?id=brasileiros-no-mundo.
Ministério das Relações Exteriores – MRE (2011). Brasileiros no mundo. Brasília: Departamento Consular e de Brasileiros no Exterior. Disponível em: https://sistemas.mre.gov.br/kitweb/datafiles/BRMundo/pt-br/file/Brasileiros%20no%20Mundo%202011%20-%20Estimativas%20-%20Terceira%20Edi%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20-%20v2.pdf.
Naciones Unidas (1997). Migración internacional y desarrollo. Nueva York: Sección de Reproducción de las Naciones Unidas.
Pereira, L. C. B. (1983). Desenvolvimento e crise no Brasil: 1930–1983. São Paulo, Brasiliense.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1
Prell, C. (2012). Social Network Analysis: History, Theory and Methodology. London: SAGE.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy, Princeton University Press, Princeton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400820740-016
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community. Simon and Schuster, New York. https://doi.org/10.15365/joce.0602122013
R Core Team (2022). A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved from: https://www.R-project.org.
Sales, T. (1999). Brasileiros longe de casa. São Paulo: Cortez.
Soares, W. (1995). Emigrantes e investidores: redefinindo a dinâmica imobiliária na economia valadarense (Dissertação de Mestrado). Rio de Janeiro, Brasil: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
Soares, W. (2002). Da metáfora à substância: redes sociais, redes migratórias e migração nacional e internacional em Valadares e Ipatinga. (Tese de Doutorado). Belo Horizonte, Brasil: Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.
Soares, W. (2009). Da Associação entre os Retornados Internacionais e os Intermediários da Rede Migratória Valadarense. REMHU - Revista Interdisciplinar da Mobilidade Humana (32), 47-59. Disponível em: https://remhu.csem.org.br/index.php/remhu/article/view/144.
Tilly, C. (1990). Transplanted networks. In: Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, ed. Yans-Maclaughlin. Oxford University Press, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195055108.003.0004
Tilly, C., Brown, C. H. (1967). On uprooting, kinship, and the auspices of migration. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 8, 139–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/002071526700800201
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs - UNDESA (2020). Population Division. International Migration 2020 Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/452). https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210048187
Varanda, M. P (2007) Acção Colectiva entre Pequenos Empresários: uma análise de redes sociais. Análise Social, Lisboa, n.182, p. 207-230. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41012465
Wellman, B. (1988). “Structural analysis: From metaphor to theory and substance”. in B. Wellman and S.D. Berkowitz (Eds.) Social structures: A network approach. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-21742-6_132
Publicado
Versiones
- 12-04-2023 (3)
- 12-04-2023 (2)
- 11-04-2023 (1)
Descargas
Derechos de autor 2022 Weber Soares, Marciel, Moises, Iago
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.
